No matter how many times you read through a
"finished" paper, you're likely to miss many of your
most frequent errors. The following guide will help you
proofread more effectively:
- by giving you some useful general strategies for
proofreading well
- by giving you strategies which personalize proofreading
so you can identify errors you typically make (You don't
need to check for everything. It's more efficient to know
your typical problem areas and make several passes through
the paper for them.)
- by giving you specific strategies for finding and
correcting those errors.
1. General Strategies
Begin by taking a break. Allow yourself some time between
writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive
because it will help get some distance from what you have
written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
The following strategies will help you s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as
you read through a paper and will therefore help you catch
mistakes that you might otherwise overlook. As you use these
strategies, remember to work slowly. If you read at a normal
speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot
errors.
Reading aloud
Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little
word.
Reading with a "cover"
Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read
encourages you to make a detailed, line-by-line review of the
paper.
Role-playing
Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the
paper as your audience might.
2. Strategies Which Personalize Proofreading
In addition to using the general strategies already listed,
you'll need to personalize the proofreading process.
You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't
have to), so you should find out what your typical problem
areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's
how:
Find out what errors you typically make. Review
instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your
paper(s) with a Writing Lab tutor.
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your
instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and
the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you
do so that you can learn to avoid them.
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed
on the following pages to find and correct your particular
errors in organization and paragraphing, usage and sentence
structure, and spelling and punctuation.
A. Organization and
Paragraphing
thesis/focus/main point
paragraph clarity
overall coherence
B. Usage and Sentence Structure
subject/verb agreement
parallel structure
pronoun reference/agreement
C. Spelling and Punctuation
spelling
compound sentence commas
comma splices
fragments
run-on sentences
introductory commas
apostrophes
left-out words
To locate and correct errors in your papers, find the
strategies on the following pages which correspond to your
typical problem areas and follow the step-by-step instructions
provided for you. Each strategy is designed to focus your
attention on only one particular error, so to be most
effective, use only one strategy at a time. (Ask a Writing Lab
tutor about any terms you don't understand and/or refer to Lab
handouts.)
A: Organization and Paragraphing
For thesis/focus/main point:
1. Find your paper's thesis statement
Copy it on another sheet of paper. If your thesis is not
directly stated, write down a possible thesis.
2. Locate the central idea of each paragraph and try to
reduce that idea to a word or phrase.
If you cannot decide on one phrase, list two or three
options.
3. List the paragraph ideas.
List these in order under your thesis.
4. Decide whether your paragraphs clearly relate to your
thesis.
If not, either rewrite your thesis to incorporate the
unrelated ideas or eliminate the unrelated paragraphs.
For more information, consult the OWL handout regarding
Thesis Statements.
For paragraph clarity:
1. Locate the central idea of each paragraph. Reduce that
idea to a word or phrase.
2. Look at each paragraph randomly. Consider only the
information in that paragraph.
3. Ask yourself whether you offer enough details in the
paragraph to support that word or idea.
4. Decide whether all of your details are relevant.
5. Ask yourself whether all of the information is related
enough to be in the same paragraph.
Should you create another paragraph or move some of the
details to another paragraph?
For more information, consult OWL handout on Paragraphs.
For overall coherence:
1. See whether you have clear transitions between
paragraphs.
If not, clarify existing transitions, add new ones,
and/or rearrange your paragraphs to make transitions clearer.
For more information, consult the OWL handouts on Transitions
and Coherence.
B. Usage and Sentence Structure
For subject/verb agreement:
1. Find the main verb in each sentence.
2. Match the verb to its subject.
3. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number.
For more information, consult the OWL handout on Subject/Verb
Agreement.
For pronoun reference/agreement:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Look
especially at it, this, they, their, and them.
2. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you
can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the
pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees
in number and person with your pronoun.
See the OWL handout concerning Pronouns.
For parallel structure:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at key words that signal
parallel structures.
Look especially for and, or, not only...but also, either...
or, neither...nor, both...and.
2. Make sure that the items connected by these words
(adjectives, nouns, phrases, etc.) are in the same grammatical
form.
For more information, see the OWL handout Parallel
Structure.
C. Spelling and Punctuation
For spelling:
1. Examine each word in the paper individually.
Move from the end of each line back to the beginning.
Pointing with a pencil helps you really see each word.
2. If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word
is spelled correctly.
For more information, see the OWL handout on Spelling.
For compound sentence commas:
1. Skim for the conjunctions and, but, for, or, nor, so and
yet.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of
the conjunction.
If so, place a comma before the conjunction.
For more information, see the OWL handout on IC's
and DC's and Punctuation.
For introductory commas:
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three
words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker, a
transition word, a participle, or a preposition.
3. Listen for a possible break point before the main
clause.
4. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or
clause (which is before the independent clause).
For more information, see the OWL handout Commas
after Introductions.
For comma splices:
1. Skim the paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of
the comma. If so, add a coordinating conjunction after the
comma or replace the comma with a semicolon.
For more information, see the OWL handout Commas.
For fragments:
1. Look at each sentence to see whether it contains an
independent clause.
2. Pay special attention to sentences that begin with
dependent marker words
(such as because) or phrases such as for example or such
as.
3. See if the sentence might be just a piece of the
previous sentence that
mistakenly got separated by a period.
For more information, see the OWL handout Sentence
Fragments.
For run-on sentences:
1. Review each sentence to see whether it contains more
than one independent clause. Start with the last sentence of
your paper, and work your way back to the beginning, sentence
by sentence.
2. Break the sentence into two sentences if necessary.
See the OWL handout Comma Splices.
For apostrophes:
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end
in "s."
2. See whether or not each "s" word needs an
apostrophe. If an apostrophe is needed, you will be able to
invert the word order and say "of" or "of
the":
- Mary's hat
- the hat of Mary
For more information, consult OWL Handout The
Apostrophe.
For left-out words:
1. Read the paper aloud, pointing to every word as you
read. Don't let your eye move ahead until you spot each word.
2. Also, make sure that you haven't doubled any words.
Steps in Editing (proofreading) Your Papers
identify typical errors
Review graded or scored comments on your old papers, and
list errors which were marked frequently. Be as specific as
possible in gathering your list (for example, problems with
introductory commas).
make a hierarchy
Determine which of the errors on your list occurred most
often and/or cost you the most in points or letter grades.
Rank order the items on your list so that the most serious
errors are on the top.
learn concepts
Make sure that you understand why you made the errors on
your list. Do a couple of practice exercises, and talk to a
Writing Lab tutor. Using your hierarchy, write rules and
sample sentences in your notebook or in the back of your
dictionary.
develop strategies
Ask a Writing Lab tutor for specific, "quick"
strategies you can use to locate these errors in your papers.
Refer, if needed, to the Writing Lab's "Proofreading
Strategies" handout. Write each strategy, step by step,
next to its corresponding rule in your notebook or dictionary.
Include any relevant key words or phrases.
write
Write your paper as you normally would, concentrating
mainly on your ideas, not on rules or strategies.
apply your strategies
When you finish writing, take a break, and then apply the
strategies one at a time, using the rules and sample sentences
as reminders if you get stuck. Remember that you are looking
for specific errors, not reading the paper. Go completely
through the paper looking for only one kind of error at a
time. You will be able to focus your concentration and energy
better that way.
Please note: Editing is not a substitute for, but a
supplement to, reading for meaning. For best results, use both
methods.
Once a rough draft is finished, we can set it aside for at
least a day; this is the first step in proofreading a paper.
Because we set the paper aside, we can then come back to the
paper with a fresh mind and thus more easily catch the errors
in it. We also bring a fresh mind to the process of polishing
a paper. Proofreading and editing a paper involve several
processes that can be summarized into some rules. While at
first it may be difficult to do all these things, with
practice, they can be accomplished.
1. READ THE PAPER ALOUD. If we read the paper aloud
slowly, we have two senses--the eyes AND the ears--working for
us. Thus, what one sense misses, the other may pick up.
2. CHECK FOR GRAMMATICAL AND MECHANICAL ERRORS. Are
marks of punctuation where they should be? Are all words
spelled correctly? (Try double-checking your spelling by
spelling the word backward.) Are pronoun reference and
subject-verb agreement consistent? Be sure to check any time
you have doubts.
3. CHECK THE THESIS STATEMENT. Does it accurately
state your main idea? Is it in fact supported by the paper?
Does it need to be changed in any way?
4. CHECK THE PAPER'S DEVELOPMENT. Are there
sufficient details? Is the logic valid?
5. CHECK THE PAPER'S COHERENCE AND UNITY. Are the
major points connected? Are the relationships between them
expressed clearly? Do they all relate to the thesis?
**6. MAKE YOUR OWN LIST OF THE ERRORS YOU MOST OFTEN
MAKE AND READ THE PAPER THROUGH ONE TIME EACH FOR THAT
PARTICULAR ERROR. Thus, if your two most frequent errors
are punctuation and spelling, you will read through the paper
once for spelling alone, and once for punctuation alone,
before going on to complete your proofreading for other
errors.
**7. REMEMBER THAT YOU ARE WRITING FOR OTHERS. No
matter how familiar they may be with the material, they cannot
"get inside" your head and understand your approach
to it unless you express yourself clearly. Therefore, it is
useful to read the paper through once as you bear in mind
whether or not the student or teacher or friend who will be
reading it will understand what you are saying. That is, have
you said exactly what you wanted to?
These rules cover the general and most basic ones of
proofreading. Once you have checked your paper for these
items, though, you will want to concern yourself with matters
of style--that is, how you have expressed your ideas. The
following rules and examples are ones that every effective
writer keeps in mind.
1. RECHECK YOUR WRITING FOR ABSTRACT SUBJECTS,
PARTICULARLY THOSE YOU HAVE COMBINED WITH PASSIVE VERBS.
Try substituting concrete or personal subjects with active
verbs.
Original: More attractiveness is sometimes given an act
when it is made illegal.
Revision: When an act becomes illegal, some people find it
more attractive.
2. CUT OUT WORDINESS WHEREVER POSSIBLE: IF YOU CAN
CUT A WORD OUT, DO SO.
Original: They are desirous of ...
Revision: They want ...
3. USE ACTIVE VERBS. Since verbs tend to carry the
meaning of your sentences, use the most precise and active
ones possible. Thus, avoid constructions using the various
forms of the verb "to be."
Original: Inflation is a threat to our economy. Revision:
Inflation threatens our economy.
4. UNLESS USING THE CONSTRUCTION FOR EMPHASIS, AVOID
STRETCHER PHRASES SUCH AS IT IS AND THERE ARE. Again,
remember the need for strong verbs.
Original: There were several reasons for the United States'
entrance into the war.
Revision: The United States entered the war for several
reasons.
5. REPLACE COLLOQUIALISMS WITH FRESH AND MORE PRECISE
STATEMENTS. Because colloquialisms tend to be used so
often, they also are not very precise in meaning. A hassle,
for example, can be an annoyance, an argument, or a physical
fight.
Original: Her behavior flipped me out.
Revision: Her behavior first stunned, then delighted me.
6. REVIEW YOUR SENTENCES. Be sure that no parts of
the paper are "short and choppy"; be sure that the
rhythm of your paper is not interrupted, except for a good
reason, like emphasis. A good way of smoothing out such a
problem is to try combining sentences, and in so doing showing
the relationship between them.
Original: The best show in terms of creating a tense
atmosphere is "Let's Make a Deal." This is probably
the most famous of all games shows.
Revision: The best show in terms of creating a tense
atmosphere is "Let's Make a Deal," which is also
probably the most famous of all game shows.
7. REVIEW YOUR DICTION. Again, remember that others
are reading your paper and that even the choice of one word
can affect their response to it. Thus, try to anticipate their
response, and choose your words accordingly.
Original: The media's exploitation of the Watergate scandal
showed how biased it was already.
Revision: The media's coverage of the Watergate scandal
suggests that perhaps those in the media had already
determined Nixon's guilt.*
Note that in addition to being more specific, the
revision does not force the reader to defend the media. In the
first example, though, the statement is so exaggerated that
even the reader who is neutral on the issue may feel it
necessary to defend the media. Thus, the writer of the
original has made his job of persuading the reader that much
harder.
PROOFREADING, EDITING AND REVISING
Practice your proofreading, editing, and revising skills
with the following exercises.
1. Once upon a time there were three little pigs. Each were
in need of a house. Two of the pigs, were very lazy, built
houses made of straw and wood, these houses were not strong.
The third pig, who was really into building houses built a
brick structure. One day a big bad wolf came along. The brick
house of the third pig was were the two pigs ran. The wolf
followed them there. He tried to blow down the third house. He
Couldn't. So he climbed down the chimney and landed in a pot
of hot water, that was the end of the wolf.
2. There are two reasons we should support the prohibition
of the sale of handguns. The first is that, since murderous
handguns are used solely to sap people, they are not needed by
anyone for sport or game hunting. In fact, they are not used
by anyone interested in recreation. And handguns are
responsible For the deaths of many, how would you feel if a
loved once were killed by handgun? The second reason is that
when the number of handguns is reduced, the number of killings
decrease. They tried this in Baltimore. It worked.
Proofreading Your Work
It is always difficult to find errors in one's own work.
The words and sentences appear correct on rereading because if
the writer had known better, he would not have made the errors
in the first place! But a careful rereading of a paper aloud
before it is turned in helps considerably.
Perhaps a checklist of common errors will serve you as a
guide. Keep this list and a grammar book before you as you
read your paper over, checking every sentence for these items.
Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragments
...Check each sentence to make sure it has a subject and
verb and complete thought.
...Have you run two sentences together incorrectly with
neither period, conjunction nor semicolon separating them?
Punctuation
...Have you ended every sentence with a period, question
mark or exclamation point?
...Are your thoughts within sentences broken up correctly by
commas for easier understanding?
...Have you broken up series by commas?
...Have you used a period after abbreviations?
...If you are in doubt about the proper punctuation of a
sentence, have you asked or looked it up in your grammar book?
Quotation Marks
...Did you remember to place exact quotes within quotation
marks?
...Did you place all periods and commas inside the quotation
marks while placing semicolons and colons outside them?
Subject-Verb Agreements
...Check every subject and verb to make sure that if you
have used a singular subject, you have also used a singular
verb.
...Similarly, a plural subject needs a plural verb.
Sentence Length
...Compute the average number of words per sentence. How
close is that number compared to the average of 22?
...Have you varied the length of sentences in each paragraph?
...If your sentences are too long, break them into shorter
units.
...Sentences that are very short tend to produce a jerky style
of writing.
...Does each sentence follow clearly and logically from the
one before it? Have you used some type of transitional device
between each sentence?
Apostrophes
...Have you used them correctly to indicate possession? If
you're unsure, check a grammar book.
Tenses
...Have you incorrectly jumped about in different tenses?
...Have you used the correct form of the verb to express the
tense you want?
Capitalization
...Have you capitalized names of persons, cities,
countries, streets, titles?
...Have you capitalized a quotation according to the original
and the needs of your sentence?
Spelling
...Check any word you have doubts about.
...If you are unsure of the spelling of a certain word, look
it up.
...Be especially careful of the words listed as spelling
nightmares; also "ei" and "ie" words,
words which add "-ing" and "ed," and words
with one or more sets of double letters.
Paragraphing
...Does each paragraph have a topic sentence which states
the main idea?
...Have you used examples and vivid specific details to
describe your topic?
...Have you used explanatory sentences to give your opinion or
judgement on the topic?
...Have you included sentences which pertain only to that
idea?
...Are transitions used between sentences and paragraphs?
...Is there a concluding sentence?
Omissions
...Have you left out any words in your sentences?
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reserved.
