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Active and Passive Voice
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
The dog bit the boy.
Pooja will present her research at the conference.
Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis.
Watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield reminds me of watching a movie or TV.In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.
The boy was bitten by the dog.
Research will be presented by Pooja at the conference.
Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.
I am reminded of watching a movie or TV by watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield.Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
Choosing Active Voice
In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.
- passive (indirect):
The entrance exam was failed by over one-third of the applicants to the school.
The brakes were slammed on by her as the car sped downhill.
Your bicycle has been damaged.- active (direct):
Over one-third of the applicants to the school failed the entrance exam.
She slammed on the brakes as the car sped downhill.
I have damaged your bicycle.Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.
- passive (more wordy):
Action on the bill is being considered by the committee.
By then, the soundtrack will have been completely remixed by the sound engineers.- active (more concise):
The committee is considering action on the bill.
By then, the sound engineers will have completely remixed the soundtrack.Changing passive to active
If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly.
- passive:
The book is being read by most of the class.
Results will be published in the next issue of the journal.
A policy of whitewashing and cover-up has been pursued.
Mistakes were made.- active:
Most of the class is reading the book.
The researchers will publish their results in the next issue of the journal.
The CIA director and his close advisors have pursued a policy of whitewashing and cover-up.
We made mistakes.Choosing Passive Voice
While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
- active:
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.- passive:
Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.
"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.
Changing active to passive
If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.
- active:
The presiding officer vetoed the committee's recommendation.
The leaders are seeking a fair resolution to the crisis.
Scientists have discovered traces of ice on the surface of Mars.- passive:
The committee's recommendation was vetoed by the presiding officer.
A fair resolution to the crisis is being sought.
Traces of ice have been discovered on the surface of Mars.In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.
Some suggestions
1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.
- Unnecessary shift in voice:
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.- Revised:
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice.
- Dangling modifier with passive voice:
To save time, the paper was written on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news.- Revised:
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software.
Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged.
Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives
In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of this handout because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a sentence.
Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section below.
Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that might be considered nonstandard, ambiguous, or at least peculiar in formal writing are marked with an asterisk (*).
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
- Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
- The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
Gerund as direct object:
- They do not appreciate my singing.
- They do not appreciate my assistance.
Gerund as subject complement:
- My cat's favorite activity is sleeping.
- My cat's favorite food is salmon.
Gerund as object of preposition:
- The police arrested him for speeding.
- The police arrested him for criminal activity.
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity. The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents. The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)Punctuation: A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.
- Points to remember:
- 1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.
- Exercise:
- Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label how they function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject complement, object of preposition).
1. Swimming keeps me in shape.
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.Answers to this exercise are available.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
- The crying baby had a wet diaper.
- Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
- The burning log fell off the fire.
- Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.
introduced (to) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
- Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *
- Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
- Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
- Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
- Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
- The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
- The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
- The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
- The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)- Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
- Points to remember:
- 1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
- Exercise:
- Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
- 1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.
2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn't worked hard enough in high school.
3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offer remedial English classes emphasizing composition.
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.
In each of the following sentences, underline the participial phrase(s), draw a line to the word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly. Remember that some sentences may not need punctuation.
6. Starting out as an army officer Karen's father was frequently transferred.
7. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and girls to a party.
8. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.
9. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible about them before applying for admission.
10. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.
Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly) with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.
11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment time passed unnoticed.Answers to this exercise are available.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
- To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
- Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
- His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
- He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
- We must study to learn. (adverb)
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive--a verbal consisting of to plus a verb--with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.
Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong
Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:
We intended to leave early. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)I have a paper to write before class. The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper.
to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)Phil agreed to give me a ride. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.
to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)They asked me to bring some food. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.
Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:
agree begin continue decide fail hesitate hope intend learn neglect offer plan prefer pretend promise refuse remember start try
- Examples:
- Most students plan to study.
We began to learn.
They offered to pay.
They neglected to pay.
She promised to return.In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:
advise allow convince remind encourage force hire teach instruct invite permit tell implore incite appoint order
- Examples:
- He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
I invite you to consider the evidence.In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that use either pattern:
ask expect (would) like want
- Examples:
- I asked to see the records.
I asked him to show me the records.
Trent expected his group to win.
Trent expected to win.
Brenda likes to drive fast.
Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.
Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
- To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.
- To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.
- Points to remember:
- 1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.
- Spilt infinitives:
- Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.
Examples:
I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)
On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)
- Exercise:
- Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence, adding any punctuation as needed.
1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
3. We want to see the play.
4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.
Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.
6. To design a new building for them would be challenging.
7. I want him to be my bodyguard.
8. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job.
9. They will try to build a new stadium in ten years.
10. To distill a quart of moonshine takes two hours.
11. The president wants to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
12. She has the money to buy it.
13. We demonstrated to attract attention to our agenda.
14. I do not like to give poor grades.
15. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.
16. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of honor.
17. To see is to believe.Answers to this exercise are available.
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle, not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.
I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two sentences in each pair.
- Examples:
- The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was extraordinary.)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as they competed.)
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing. * (Ambiguous: who is running and laughing?)
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives
The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the following lists:
Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming
Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dreamTheir functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but infinitives often also serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in many situations, especially for people whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.
Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects
agree decide expect hesitate learn need promise neglect hope want plan attempt propose intend pretend
- Examples:
- I hope to go on a vacation soon.
(not: I hope going on a vacation soon. *)
He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
They agreed to sign the treaty.
(not: They agreed signing the treaty. *)
Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.
(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking. *)
They will attempt to resuscitate the victim
(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim. *)
Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects
deny risk delay consider can't help keep give up be fond of finish quit put off practice postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit) regret enjoy keep (on) dislike admit avoid recall mind miss detest appreciate recommend get/be through get/be tired of get/be accustomed to get/be used to
- Examples:
- They always avoid drinking before driving.
(not: They always avoid to drink before driving. *)
I recall asking her that question.
(not: I recall to ask her that question. *)
She put off buying a new jacket.
(not: She put off to buy a new jacket. *)
Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.
(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook. *)
Charles keeps calling her.
(not: Charles keeps to call her. *)
Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects
start begin continue hate prefer like love try remember
- Examples:
- She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.
They like to go to the movies.
They like going to the movies.
Brent started to walk home.
Brent started walking home.
Forget and remember
These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.
- Examples:
- Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime later.)
Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)
Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)
Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)
Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered sometime later.)In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive gerund form having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible confusion.
Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb
Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb (infinitive form minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object, the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.
feel hear notice watch see smell observe
- Examples:
- We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action)
We watched him play basketball. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action)
She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action)
She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action)
Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)
Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action)
The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)
The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)
We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen. (continuous action)
We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous action)Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem unconventional, so it's safer in most cases to use the gerund version.
Copyright (C)1998 by Purdue University. All rights reserved.